Welcome to the eleventh issue of ELPiS magazine.
Hello everyone, here is the next, long awaited, already eleventh issue of the magazine. As previously announced on many sites and forums - this issue is entirely dedicated to women. Even more, the issue is written by a woman about women for women.
Surprising? To some extent, yes.
I really liked the concept that we have together with the new editor-in-chief (she tried very hard, support her work with comments in the guest book), who this time took responsibility for all the articles in this issue. Until recently, she had already written several works for previous issues, so this experience was useful in order to create a full-fledged issue.
What is so special about this issue, you ask ;-)
It is unusual in that it will be completely autobiographical, about women who stood at the origins of the creation of full-fledged computers, personal computers, programming languages, interfaces, storage devices, and much more. Those who are just learning the basics will be interested to read how it all began, perhaps you even use these materials for your abstracts or other creative works, the facts are collected bit by bit from all over the Internet, meticulously, and described in the most accessible way for understanding how it was then.
Many facts from the articles will definitely surprise you, I promise you that.
Today, in the age of computerization, no one is surprised by a computer or the Internet, but when creating something new, we always turn to the origins.
This is where my role ends, say hello to TomoTomoTan, and I wish you a pleasant pastime and a good day.
— ELPiS. September 2025.
Table of contents:
1. When Computers Were Big
2. Commodore Hopper
3. Fair Margaret
4. Paint the screen with smile
5. The older sister of Mac
6. Epilogue
When Computers Were Big
It's amazing how in 100 years you can live through a world war, see the last carts replaced by the first cars, witness man's flight into space and the dawn of the internet. Having lived 100 years (from 1922 to 2022), Kathleen Booth (née Brittain) not only saw all of this, but also directly contributed to the development of computer science.
She began her professional career in 1944 at the Royal Aircraft Establisment, immediately after receiving her bachelor's degree, but she achieved her greatest success at Birkbeck, where she joined in 1946 and joined the research group of Andrew Booth, her future husband. It was at Birkbeck that they would develop the ARC, SEC and APEC computers together. In 1947, as his assistant, she accompanies him on a business trip to the United States, during which they visit John von Neumann at Princeton University. This is Brittain's first cruise to the United States, and Booth's second - the previous trip was paid for by the Rockefeller Foundation.
The visit convinces them to rebuild the ARC (Automatic Relay Calculator) computer in accordance with what is now called the von Neumann architecture. Booth and Brittain describe a number of the amendments they made in the article "General Considerations for the Design of a General-Purpose Electronic Digital Computer". The result of this article is the creation of the ARC2 computer. Together with Booth's other assistant, Xenia Sweeting, Brittain participates in the creation and support of the components of this computer. But her most important contribution to the work is not working with the equipment, but the world's first assembler - autocode for the ARC2 computer.
In 1950, Brittain gets married and changes her surname to Booth.
Kathleen Booth working with the APEC computer. You can see the magnetic drum below.
In 1953, Booth's group completed work on the APEC (General Purpose Electronic Computer) computer, which featured a permanent storage device in the form of a rotating magnetic drum - a distant ancestor of the modern hard drive. Thanks to this, the computer could remember the data and routines entered into it, and then use them when necessary. The couple developed the drum itself together, and it was the first device of this type.In addition to creating her own programs, Kathleen Booth directly shaped the culture of programming. In 1953, together with her husband, she published the book "Automatic Digital Machines", which described the "planning and coding" programming style, and also presented flowcharts, routines, and a listing of some programs with comments.In 1957, she participated in the founding of the School of Computer Science and Information Systems at Birkbeck College.
In 1958, she taught a course in Computer Science, which was unique for that time. That same year, she published a book on programming the APEC computer.
Despite the fact that Booth's group was one of the smallest, and the volume of work they did was enormous, Birkbeck was not particularly eager to support their research, so the group was mostly sponsored by the Rockefeller Foundation. Tensions between the group and the college reached their climax in 1961, when he refused Andrew Booth's request to create his own laboratory and chair of computer engineering. Because of this, the couple abandoned work on the almost completed ICT 1400 computer and quit, and then left the "hive of socialist mediocrity" and moved to Canada, where they got a job at the University of Saskatchewan.
In addition to creating programs for numerical calculations, Booth also led the development of programs for machine translation. On November 11, 1955, the Birkbeck Computer Laboratory demonstrated the work of the world's first translator. Booth typed a text in French, and after a while the machine produced a translation into English. As far as is known, this was the world's first machine translation. Thus, the capabilities of a computer to work not only with numbers, but also with text were demonstrated.
After moving to Canada, she continued to work on the translator, and in 1965 she became the director of the national project on machine translation of language.
Among other things, Booth explored other computer capabilities. Back in 1959, she developed a program simulating the work of neurons in order to study the ways in which animals recognize patterns. A year later, it became known that a neural network had been developed that recognized symbols.
The study of neural networks became the main focus of her work for many years. Even after retiring in 1978 and moving to a settlement, she did not leave work and in 1993, together with her son Ian, she published an article on the recognition of marine mammals using neural networks. Until her death, she continued to follow the development of computer technology. It is known that she recorded her memories on an iPad, although she was already 99 years old at the time.
She celebrated her centenary on July 9, 2022. Shortly before that, a lecture in honor of Andrew and Kathleen Booth was held at Birkbeck, to which she sent a video message, and its screening or after the main part.
Kathleen Booth died in September of the same year, two and a half months after the anniversary.
Commodore Hopper
If Booth created the first assembler, then Grace Hopper brought machine language closer to natural language.
The Amazing Grace began her engineering career at the age of seven, when she wanted to know how an alarm clock worked, and to do so, she took apart seven of them.
In 1924, she entered Vassar College, the first institution of higher education for women in the United States. She got in on her second try; the first time, she didn’t have enough points in Latin. She graduated in 1928 with a bachelor’s degree in mathematics and physics and an honorary diploma from the Phi Beta Kappa society, the oldest honorary student society.
She received her master’s degree from Yale University in 1930. In 1934, she defended her doctoral dissertation there, and in the same year, she got a job teaching mathematics. In 1941, she became an associate professor.
In 1943, she volunteered for the U.S. Navy Reserve, and was accepted as an exception - she was 15 pounds short of the minimum weight limit. She graduated at the top of her class at cadet school, and with the rank of lieutenant junior grade was assigned to the Ordnance Computing Projects Bureau at Harvard University. There, under the supervision of Howard Aiken, she programmed the Mark I computer, also known as the Automatic Sequence Calculator.
Hopper later wanted to transfer to the regular Navy, but was rejected because she was already 38 years old, and so she continued to serve in the reserves. Despite the fact that Vassar offered Hopper a full professorship, she decided to remain at the Harvard Computing Laboratory and conduct research there under a contract with the Navy.
In 1949, she became an employee of the Eckert and Mauchly Corporation and joined the development of the UNIVAC computer. In the early 50s, Eckert-Mauchley Computer Corporation became part of Remington Rand and for some time became IBM's main competitor in the computer market. It was then that the Hopper team released the first ever A-0 compiler, known as the "A Compiler".
Later, Remington Rand would become part of Unisys - the same ones that until 2003 owned a patent for a gif image compression algorithm. In 1955, the Hopper team released a number of compilers: ARITH-MATIC, which worked with arithmetic functions, FLOW-MATIC, aimed at business, and MATH-MATIC, which supported algebraic representation of expressions, as well as working with arrays and floating-point numbers. Strictly speaking, these compilers in the modern sense were rather linkers. ARITH-MATIC is similar in structure to FLOW-MATIC, with the exception that the latter works with records rather than arrays, and also uses keywords instead of mathematical symbols. This is important to note because FLOW-MATIC is the basis of COBOL, one of the first high-level languages.
COBOL was also developed with Hopper's direct involvement. In 1959, a conference on data-processing languages (CODASYL) was convened to define standards for a new programming language for commercial systems. Hopper was a technical consultant to the committee, and many of Hopper's former subordinates were among the participants in defining the standards for the new language.
The new language, called COBOL, was an extension of FLOW-MATIC, and also incorporated some ideas from COMTRAN, a similar language from IBM. Hopper's idea that programs are better written in a language closer to English than to machine code was also embedded in this new language.
And to those who claim that people who process data should use mathematical notation, I would advise you to first teach mathematical notation to the vice president or colonel or admiral. I assure you, I have already tried. Being close to natural language, COBOL became the most widely used language for business applications, and is now used by banking systems around the world.
From 1967 to 1977, Hopper led the Navy's programming language group and, as part of the standardization program, developed a validator (a program for checking code for errors) for COBOL and its compiler. She was the first to apply standardization to testing computer systems and, most importantly, programming languages (in particular, to the COBOL and FORTRAN languages).
Tests for compliance with these standards later led to similarities in the dialects of these languages. In addition, in the 1970s, Hopper persuaded to replace large centralized systems with a network of small, interconnected computers so that each user could access a common database from any node. During this time, in 1973, she was promoted to captain.
Hopper retired several times. She first retired from the U.S. Naval Reserve in 1966 with the rank of commander, but returned to duty the following August. She resigned again in 1971, and returned to duty the following year.
Grace Hopper in the computer room in Washington, D.C., 1978.
Hopper resigned again on August 14, 1986. By this time, she had already received rank of commodore, or rear admiral, and was the oldest officer still in service. At a ceremony to celebrate her retirement, Hopper was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal, the highest non-combatant service award in the U.S. Department of Defense. The ceremony took place on the oldest active ship in the U.S. Navy, the USS Constitution.
After her retirement, Hopper was hired as a senior consultant at DEC, where she worked until her death in 1992, at the age of 85. In her later years, she also lectured both at DEC offices and at public events. Although no longer in service, she always wore her Navy dress uniform for these lectures.
She illustrated many of her lectures with a telephone cord cut to a length of 30 cm, the distance light travels in a nanosecond. She considered educational activities an important professional result, along with the development of the compiler.
Hopper was buried with full military honors at Arlington National Cemetery.
Fair Margaret
Besides the fact that there is Margaret Hamilton, the actress who played the Wicked Witch of the West in the movie The Wizard of Oz, there is also another Margaret Hamilton, a remarkable programmer who wrote the software for the Apollo onboard computer.
Her story is unusual in that Margaret was born into a creative family. Her father was a poet, her grandfather was a writer (as well as a school principal and a Quaker). Her place of birth is the small town of Paioli in the "Big Man State" - Indiana.
After graduating from high school, she studied mathematics for two years at the University of Michigan - the oldest university in Michigan, also part of the Ivy League, and then returned home to Indiana and received a bachelor's degree from Earlham College, where her mother had previously studied. It was the head of the Earlham mathematics department, Florence Long, who inspired Hamilton to study abstract mathematics and helped her become a professor. It was at Earlham that she met James Hamilton, whom she soon married and had a daughter, Lauren.
After completing her studies, Margaret supported the family by teaching mathematics and French at a school while her husband worked on his degree at Harvard University. She later moved to Boston to complete her PhD in abstract mathematics at Brydence University, co-founded by Albert Einstein. However, in the summer of 1959, she took a job in the meteorology department at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
At MIT, she worked in the laboratory of Edward Lorenz, the creator of chaos theory. There, Margaret developed a weather forecasting system (also known as Whirlwind) for Librascope's LGP-30 and DEC's PDP-1 computers. It is worth noting that Margaret had no previous experience with computers, and so she had to rely on her experience in mathematics.
At that time, software engineering and computer science were not yet established disciplines, so programmers learned on the job. Eventually, after working on the project for two years, Margaret hired and trained her replacement, Ellen Fetter, and in the summer of 1961, she moved on to another project.
This project was called Semi-Automatic Ground Environment, or SAGE for short. It was an extension of Whirlwind and was designed to detect enemy aircraft. However, before she could take part, she had to prove her abilities.
She recalled:
What they used to do when you came into this organization as a beginner, was to assign you this program which nobody was able to ever figure out or get to run. When I was the beginner they gave it to me as well. And what had happened was it was tricky programming, and the person who wrote it took delight in the fact that all of his comments were in Greek and Latin. So I was assigned this program and I actually got it to work. It even printed out its answers in Latin and Greek. I was the first one to get it to work.
Margaret worked on the project from 1961 to 1963. SAGE was important to her, because it was with this project that she began to be interested in software reliability. It is worth noting that debugging programs was much more difficult then than it is now, since the only information the programmer received was the register highlighting on the computer console, showing where the program stopped.
Margaret's program helped to discover another way to debug. When she worked, the computer made a noise reminiscent of the sound of seashore, which is why the employees called it "the seashore program." But one day, early in the morning, the operator told her that the program was not working correctly. When Margaret asked what was wrong, he replied that the program no longer sounded like the seashore. Thus, another way to debug was discovered - sound.
Nevertheless, after SAGE, Margaret planned to return to graduate school. But one day, her husband saw an ad in the newspaper: the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory was looking for people to develop software to send a man to the moon. The lab received a contract from NASA to create on-board flight software for the Apollo project, since it was also developing the computing hardware for it.
Margaret ended up leaving graduate school and joining the development, becoming the first programmer and the first woman hired by them, and her efforts on the Air Force project made her a candidate for the position of lead developer at NASA for the Apollo program. Soon there was so much work that Margaret began to take her daughter Lauren to work with her so as not to leave her alone at home, and together they debugged programs and equipment.
Or rather, Margaret did, and Lauren, imitating her mother, ran simulations and played astronaut. During one of these simulations, Lauren accidentally ran a pre-launch program while the main program was running, causing it to malfunction and erasing navigation data.
Margaret was shocked when she realized what had happened and immediately reported it to her superiors, to which she was told, "This will never happen because the astronauts are well trained." When she asked for an error detection code to be added that would display a message like, "Now is not the time to do P01," she was again told that the astronauts were well trained and there was nothing to worry about. She eventually wrote in the program notes that P01 should not be done during flight.
These explanations became part of the specification, so the astronaut could find and read them if necessary. However, during the Apollo 8 flight, exactly what Margaret feared happened - an astronaut accidentally triggered P01 during the flight and erased the navigation data, which forced her to hastily re-enter it, using only the stars as a guide. Only then was Margaret told she could add the code.
Margaret and her daughter Lauren.
In the summer of 1968, Margaret finally got the chance to work on the Apollo 11 onboard guidance computer. With modest dimensions of 61 cm x 32 cm x 17 cm, it could, in theory, perform quite a lot of operations, including control of movement and navigation, as well as control of the command and lunar modules.
Apollo 11 onboard guidance computer and input panel.
By this time, Margaret had already established herself as an experienced programmer (including experience in the field of spacecraft), so she was immediately appointed head of the software development department. The department's responsibilities included developing software for the Columbia command module, the Eagle lunar module, and their general software.
As it turned out later, software was one of the most important components of the entire lunar program, so the initially small department (which was not even allocated a budget at first) grew to 100 people. According to Margaret, her superiors did not doubt her competence, but some of the men on her team had certain problems, although they never reached the point of open disobedience.
Margaret's main achievement during this period was the creation of asynchronous processes. The essence was that a program with a higher priority could interrupt the execution of programs with a lower priority if they began to take up too many computer resources.
In addition to using asynchronous processes, the onboard computer also had a system for restoring work in the event of a failure. The software not only detected and signaled problems, but also tried to fix them by rebooting and reassigning high-priority tasks. Thanks to this software architecture, it was possible to prevent the failure of the moon landing.
The famous photo of Margaret standing next to the Apollo 11 documentation
Later, Margaret continued to develop ideas for preventing errors and fault tolerance in software. Seven years after Apollo 11, in 1976, together with a partner, she founded Higher Order Software (HOS). Based on the methodology developed at MIT, HOS created the USE.IT software product, which was successfully used in numerous government projects. Hamilton served as CEO of HOS until 1984 and left the company in 1985.
In 1986, Margaret founded and became CEO of Hamilton Technologies. The company's main focus is the development of the USL language and its automated environment - 001 Tool Suite, used for designing systems and developing software. The peculiarity of this software and language is that they do not correct failure situations, but prevent them altogether. Hamilton Technologies' clients include IBM, Motorola, NASA, Lockheed Martin, AT&T, Boston University, Honeywell and many other companies that require the same reliable software as for Apollo.
Paint the screen with smile
A modern user will not be surprised by a huge set of fonts and emoji. In Windows there are now over 250 of them, and in MacOS, probably even more, and each of them has a unique style. The icons of applications and documents have long had a familiar style and appearance, and none of them can be confused with another.
And this became possible thanks to Susan Kare - the woman who gave the computer a face. Susan Kare was born into a family of "techies". Her father was a chemist, and her younger brother later became an aerospace engineer. Despite this, Susan always felt that she would connect her fate with the fine arts and become either an artist or a teacher. Her love for art was instilled in her by her mother, who was engaged in needlework.
The skill of counted embroidery (for example, cross stitching), which she taught Susan, would be very useful to her in the future when she would develop icons for the Macintosh. She joined the development of the Macintosh thanks to Andy Hertzfeld, a school friend whose contribution was no less important, since he created the icon and font editors that Kare used. In exchange for an Apple II, he asked her to draw some icons and font elements for the Macintosh.
At that time, she knew nothing about computer graphics, pixel art, or digital typography, but she already had experience in graphic design and knowledge of counted embroidery and mosaics. Hertzfeld suggested buying a notebook with a grid of the smallest size and sketching several 32x32 pixel images that would display some functions of commands and applications. Among these drawings were scissors for the Cut command, an index finger for the Paste command, and a brush for MacPaint.
She liked the work, and liked the other people working on the Macintosh. Subsequently, she was offered an official part-time job. To increase her chances of success, she took with her many books from the Palo Alto library. She passed the interview successfully, and in January 1983 she was hired as a "Macintosh Artist". As Kare admitted, she was offered not so much a job as an interview.
She managed to develop the visual language of the Macintosh in just a year. The work was so excellent that some of the fonts and icons were soon even patented. In the process, Kare reworked and improved the existing iconography and desktop metaphor imported from the Macintosh's predecessor, the Apple Lisa. It is worth noting that the Lisa's graphical interface was based on the Xerox Alto and Xerox Star interfaces, the first computers with a graphical interface. But if Xerox invented the GUI, and the Apple Lisa added volume to it, then what new did Ker bring to the table when working on the Mac?
Original icons for the Xerox 8010 Star computer (1981)
Xerox 8010 Star screen
Redesigned icons for Macintosh
First of all, she simplified them, removed unnecessary details, focusing on the meaning of the drawing. For example, if you compare the trash can icon of all three systems, you can see that the Mac trash can has the least details, but at the same time it is still recognizable as a trash can.
If we talk about the drawings created by Kare herself, they use the simplest metaphors so that their meaning, as Kare put it, "even my mother understood." For example, if you need to adjust the volume, then, obviously, you need to press the speaker. If something can be picked up and moved, then the cursor turns into a palm. If the computer is thinking, and the user needs to wait, then the cursor turns into a clock.
The user can even determine the nature of pop-up messages from the drawing. If a talking person appears there, it is a simple notification, and if a bomb, it is a serious error. It would seem like trifles, but the entire system is permeated with such trifles.
Finally, Kare literally gave the computer a face. When starting the Mac, the user is greeted by the "Happy Mac" icon - a Macintosh with a smile drawn on the screen. If the system experiences a critical failure, the user sees "Sad Mac" on a black background - a Macintosh with crossed-out eyes and no smile.
Among other things, Kare came up with an icon for the Command button. Before the Macintosh, there were already models with this button - the Apple IIe and Apple III, and they proudly displayed an apple on them. (This button was a modifier, like Ctrl and Alt) It was also planned to add the Command key for the new computer, but the icon had to be different, since, in Jobs's opinion, there were too many apples, which made it seem like they were bragging about the logo. Not only were they on the screen and keyboard, they had to appear in the manual as well. That there were indeed a lot of apples can be seen in the Apple Lisa example.
Apple Lisa screen with menu open
In search of a suitable symbol, Ker studied the dictionary of symbols and found the Swedish sign for a point of interest – ⌘. Then, she created a 16x16 bitmap image of the sign, showed it to the team, and they liked it. This icon is still used on Apple keyboards today.
But Kare’s work is not about was limited to drawings. The font system was redesigned for the Mac. Now the computer could display not only monospaced fonts like Monaco, but also proportional (New York), decorative (San Francisco), handwritten (Los Angeles) and pictogram fonts (Cairo). The latter can be considered a kind of forerunner of the well-known Wingdings. And the first font created for the Macintosh, Chicago, was used in the first generations of the iPod
Apple Macintosh font families
After Apple, she worked for some time at NeXT as a creative director, but soon realized that she liked working with raster graphics more, so she later left, deciding to become a freelance artist.
The work did not take long to come. In the late 80s, she was invited to work on the Windows 3.0 interface to make it more coherent. The work was so successful that her Notepad and Control Panel icons were used in the system until Windows XP was released. And the backs and the front side of the deck of cards were preserved in Windows XP itself.
Later, Kare was hired by IBM to work on the OS/2 interface. The icons, in comparison with Mac and Windows, were more strict, but the master's handwriting was just as recognizable. The fates of OS/2 and NT were briefly intertwined again.
Finally, she took part in the design of the Nautilus file manager in Gnome, which was even noted on the project's website. Thus, if not every, then many modern systems bear the imprint of her palm. She intertwined several eras (black and white and color computers) and several Mac Windows OS/2 and Linux systems, just as a pattern is woven on a canvas of counted embroidery.
The older sister of Mac
Since the Mac was mentioned earlier, we can’t help but mention its older sister, the Apple Lisa, which BYTE magazine called “the most underrated machine in the microcomputer industry” in December 1984.
It was its older sister in many ways. It was developed a year before the Mac, and it was released exactly a year before the Mac. If the Mac was a home computer, the Lisa was a workstation.
Lisa 2 (left) next to the Mac.
The Lisa was first designed in 1978 as a business workstation. It had high hopes, since towards the end of its development it was supposed to be not only a cheaper version of the Xerox Star, but also a competitor to the IBM PC. Among other things, it was supposed to have a graphical interface with mouse support. With all this, the Lisa’s price had to fit within the upper price limit of $2,000. Interestingly, initially, only Lisa was supposed to be a graphical computer, while Mac was supposed to be a text computer, like its predecessors, the Apple II and Apple III.
However, in 1980, Jobs, who had been working on the project since its inception, was removed from working with Lisa, because the team went over budget due to the addition of new features (one of which was a graphical interface and mouse control), and Lisa's price turned out to be higher than expected. Immediately after being removed, Jobs appropriated Jef Raskin's Macintosh project and rethought the small text computer as a cheaper version of Lisa. In addition, he lured some of the Lisa team's developers to the Mac team, which also explains the external and internal kinship of the computers - a similar graphical interface and the same processor. In a way, Lisa can be considered Jobs's illegitimate daughter.
There is an opinion that the computer was named after Jobs's illegitimate daughter - Lisa Brennan, later even Jobs himself claimed this. This is unexpected, since Jobs did not want to acknowledge her as his own (and therefore pay alimony) for a very long time. He justified this by saying that he was... sterile, although genetic tests confirmed the relationship, and later Jobs had three children. One way or another, Lisa is the real name of the computer, and not some kind of abbreviation, since even in the documentation it is designated as "The Lisa".
Why is the computer called undervalued? For the price of $ 9995 (later $ 4995), Lisa offered an improved graphical interface compared to the Xerox Star with mouse support, a fully multitasking LisaOS system and a pre-installed office suite (LisaWrite, LisaCalc, LisaDraw, LisaGraph, LisaProject, LisaList and LisaTerminal).
The system allowed you to create several files with one name, had a built-in screensaver, an advanced calculator, an on-screen keyboard and memory protection. The system itself was written in Pascal, which is a rarity. In addition, the system supported a swap file, although it slowed down the operation considerably.
In addition to its own operating system, Lisa could run third-party ones, including XENIX and UNIX. It had expansion slots, and later even acquired a Mac application emulation environment.
In addition to the fact that Lisa was equipped with a Motorola 68000 processor and 1 MB of RAM, it also had a 5 MB hard drive, which early versions of Mac did not have at all.
But as much as Lisa was a technological breakthrough, it was also a commercial failure. In addition to competing with the IBM PC, it had to compete with the cheaper Mac. Over the course of its history, between 10,000 and 50,000 Lisa computers were sold. Most of them were bought by NASA. When the time came to replace them, it turned out that the entire fleet of computers needed to be updated. Due to low sales, Lisa lasted only 3 years - from 1983 to 1986.
Despite its short lifespan, Lisa influenced the appearance of the Macintosh, and accordingly, the appearance of any subsequent graphics system. It became a transitional link between the Xerox Alto and the Apple Macintosh. Thanks to Lisa, it became easier for users to work with files and folders.
It was Lisa that began to place file and folder names under the icon, and not on it. It was Lisa that introduced a menu bar in the form of a strip with drop-down lists. Finally, Lisa had a convenient file manager. Files of different types no longer looked like faceless sheets of paper, they differed from each other even more than in the Xerox Star. There is not enough time to describe all the little things, including the slanted thick arrow, modified sliders, etc., so it is better to take a look at Lisa's interface yourself. Luckily, you don't have to look for the original machine to do this, because in the middle of this year a clone of LisaOS appeared that can be run directly in the browser.
This is a real operating system, not one of the many fakes of all sorts of systems on Flash or PowerPoint. The system itself is written in JavaScript. I should note that using LisaGUI on a phone is inconvenient, since it requires a mouse and keyboard, so you will need a computer to work with it.
Epilogue
This issue turned out to be special not only in content, but also in spirit, remembering those who open new horizons, who create technologies that have become habits today.
Their history is not just facts, these are living destinies that inspire and make you think.
In each biography - perseverance, faith and a desire to make the world a little better. The women to whom this graduation is dedicated were not afraid to move forward, even when they had to break stereotypes. Their experience is a reminder that value is created where there is courage and passion for the cause.
Time goes by, technologies change, but the desire for simplicity and territories remains with us. We believe that in a world of endless possibilities there will always be a place for small, but real things. For meaning and warmth - both online and in life.
This magazine is not only criticism, but also hope. Hope that among millions of identical commercial sites there is still a place for personal projects, for sincerity and warmth, for what is done with soul. Where ideas, creativity and freedom are more important than likes and views.
Our little corner is addressed to those who are looking for something more than just another stream of news, advertising and empty footnotes.
Each issue is a step towards preserving these values. We ensure that great knowledge, memories and inspiration are collected so that they do not disappear in the stream of monotonous content.
Let there at least be a place for real research here.
Thank you for visiting these pages and sharing this journey with us. We hope that in the next issue you will again find new reasons for reflection.
